Satellite systems have to address difficult problems in managing progression through grades. The núcleo system in Bolivia aims to ensure that children complete their basic education at the consolidador, or central school. Another approach is to create satellite schools that provide a full primary cycle, such as those developed for remote rural communities in Burkina Faso (UNESCO, 2010: 192).

UNESCO. 2010. Reaching the Marginalized: EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2010. Paris: UNESCO.

Increased access to primary and secondary education places great demands on the quality of the teaching force. During the 1990s, the increase in the school-age population outpaced the growth in the number of teachers worldwide (Anderson, 2004: 19).

In Colombia, vouchers are used to increase school attendance by children in low income families in areas which have space in private schools but none in public schools (Welsh and McGinn, 1999: 45).

The most interesting feature of the Minas Gerais reform is its multi-pronged approach. It simultaneously tried to: increase the autonomy of the schools; transfer financial resources directly to the control of school principals; create school boards with active parent participation; have principals chosen by school boards, among candidates pre-screened through an examination; create teachertraining programmes managed by the schools; and establish a state-wide evaluation of schools via a student-testing programme (Carnoy, 1999: 55).

Some countries’ plans aim to improve teaching quality by setting higher qualification standards for teachers; in Bangladesh, for example, a diploma in education is to replace the certification in education by 2014. Other plans emphasize less traditional approaches, such as school cluster-based in-service teacher education in Kenya, Namibia, Sudan and Timor-Leste. Rwanda aims to use mentors in every school to support teacher development (UNESCO, 2014: 218).

The findings from such studies suggest that in-service staff development is most effective when delivered in connection with a school development plan (Pelgrum and Law, 2003: 69).

When selected schools were converted from double-session to single-session, secondary school pupils spent about twice as much time in after-school activities, thus making better use of their school facilities (Bray, 2008: 106).

The policy landscape in which school grant policies are designed and implemented varies from one country to another; however, in all four countries,  these  policies have been  implemented  to respond  to the following  policy  objectives,  more or  less explicitly,  as noted in the respective guidelines: contribute to equal access to school for all children, including the poorest, by reducing the cost barriers of schooling to parents; improve education quality in the beneficiary schools;  improve school management and functioning  through  greater school autonomy; increase administrative efficiency (Lugaz and De Grauwe, 2016: 44-45).

Lugaz, C.; De Grauwe, A. 2016. Improving school financing: the use and usefulness of school grants; lessons from East Asia and the Pacific. Paris: UNESCO-IIEP.

Improving the health and learning of school children through school-based health and nutrition programmes is not a new concept. Many countries have school health programmes, and many agencies and non-government organizations (NGO’s) have decades of experience. These common experiences suggest an opportunity for concerted action by a partnership of agencies and NGO’s to broaden the scope of school health programmes and make them more effective. Effective school health programmes will contribute to the development of Child-friendly schools and thus to the promotion of education for all (UNICEF, WHO and World Bank, 2001: 5).

UNICEF, WHO, et World Bank. Focusing Resources on Effective School Health: a FRESH start to enhancing the quality and equity of education, 2001.

School inspection was also transformed. The earlier system of inspection, directly subordinated to the regional and local authorities, was suppressed. Regional advisory centres were set up and schools in need of professional advice transferred the former inspectors to these centres as professional advisers who could be invited (Abu-Duhou, 1999: 9).

In countries where compulsory schooling consists of approximately nine years or less, the average (compulsory) school-leaving age is 16 or under (Desjardins, Rubenson and Milana, 2006: 45).

School mapping aims to align the supply and demand for education by considering the existing situation alongside the resources available and the estimate of future needs. These are determined from strategic options in education policies, demographic changes and the internal dynamics of the education system (flow rate variations). Yet this exercise is fraught with technical difficulties. It presupposes sound methodological control of school mapping and implies constant reliance on micro-planning tools throughout the process (Sylla and Tournier, 2013: 4).

Sylla, Khadim, and Barbara Tournier. « The benefits of school mapping ». IIEP newsletter 31, n^o 1 (2013): 4.

The two main approaches regarding thetransition to primary school may be summed up as ‘school readiness’ and ‘ready schools’ (Fabian and Dunlop, 2006). The former stresses theimportance of ECCE in promoting children’s development and assuring their school readiness; it seeks to identify the characteristics that children should display if they are ready forschool. (UNESCO, 2007: 162)

UNESCO. Strong foundations: early childhood care and education; EFA global monitoring report, 2007. Paris: UNESCO, 2007.

Household and school surveys indicate that financial contributions to schools, and related expenditures, can represent a large fraction of household expenses (Table 4.7). In Panama, for instance, 7.7% of household total annual expenditure is spent on education while in Nicaragua and Tajikistan the share is 5.5% (UNESCO, 2008: 151).

The scarcity of women among planners and managers may help explain the lack of reflection on the impact in gender terms of some popular management reforms. Take the example of school-based management (SBM). While the teaching profession is increasingly feminized, the position of head teacher remains male-dominated in many countries. As a result of greater school autonomy, the administrative and managerial workload of principals increases, to the detriment of their role as pedagogical leaders.

De Grauwe, A. 2010. ‘Is Educational Planning Gender-Neutral?’ IIEP Newsletter XXVII (1): 10–11.

While the expansion of secondary education has been significant, challenges remain. Millions of students leave school without completing 12 years of education. Furthermore, expansion does not guarantee equal access and quality of provision. (Jacinto, 2011: 2)

Jacinto, Claudia. 2011. « Meeting the expectations of youth ». IIEP Newsletter XXIX, n^o 2.

Saavedra and  Opfer  (2012)  argue that learners must hone their skills and enhance their learning as a  matter of urgency to be able to address persistent global challenges.  However,  in spite of worldwide agreement that learners need skills such as critical thinking and the ability to communicate effectively,  innovate and solve problems through negotiation and collaboration,  pedagogy has not adapted to address these new challenges (UNESCO, 2015:2).

Cynthia  Luna  Scott. 2015. THE FUTURES of LEARNING 3: What kind of pedagogies for the 21st  century? UNESCO Education Research and Foresight, Paris. [ERF Working Papers Series, No. 15]

Over time, various forecasting techniques and simulation models were developed which aimed at orienting the educational investments either according to the needs of the labour market (manpower approach), or to the social demand for education (social demand approach), or to the needs of education sub-sectors with the best rate of return (cost–benefit approach), or to a more or less harmonious combination of these three approaches (IIEP-UNESCO, 2010: 9)., Following the “democratization of education” at the end of the 1950s, planning experts sought ways of assessing education costs as part of national budgets and forecasting the needs of education systems. The rather rudimentary planning of the first period evolved and became more sophisticated. The “social demand” approach assumes that the objective of policy is to provide a supply of facilities corresponding with the estimated demand for educational services (Resnik, 2006).

A classroom built to take 30 pupils is only occupied by an average of 15 pupils. The space utilisation rate is (15/30) x 100 = 50 %. It is more difficult to calculate this ratio given that the classroom capacity must be evaluated. Should this be the capacity featuring in the classroom construction programme? Should headteachers be asked to determine the capacity of each classroom? Then, the risk is that school principals would indicate the number of existing seats instead of the potential number. Classroom capacity can also be calculated by dividing the area (m2) of each classroom by the standard area (m2) per pupil (UNESCO-IIEP, 1983:87).

Caillods, Francoise, et al. 1983. School Mapping and Micro-Planning in Education. Paris: UNESCO-IIEP.

State educational planners can use a variety of mechanisms to control diverse educational structures so as to achieve particular objectives associated with a positive outcome. Just as there are debates concerning whether special-needs students should be educated in special schools with appropriate physical facilities and staff, or whether it is important for them and other students to be educated in ordinary schools, albeit with suitable support networks and services, so too there are similar debates among those concerned about how best to meet the needs of students from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds (Inglis, 2008: 57).

Inglis, Christine. 2008. Planning for cultural diversity. Fundamentals of Educational Planning 87. Paris: UNESCO-IIEP.